Senin, 30 April 2012

RELATIVE CLOUSE

Published : 04.49 Author : Unknown

Relative clauses give more information about a subject or object. They usually follow and "agree" with the noun they modify and often occur between a Subject and Verb. However, they usually have no effect on the S + V relationship.

The man who works at IBM comes from Hong Kong.

The house that Jack built remains empty.

The people who came to the party had a great time.

Those who arrive early are entitled to a rebate.

I ate an apple that had a worm in it.

She is the one who I told you about.

The man who lives over there is my uncle.

One of the men who lives over there is my uncle.

Only one of the people who work in the company is qualified.

Most relative clauses use the words who, whom, whose, which, that, when or where.

This is the place where I met my wife.

Paul is the man who loves Mary.

Simon is the man who(m) Mary loves.

(subject position)

(object position)

Commas which set off relative clauses function like parentheses ( ) indicating non-essential information.

My wife, who is a doctor, works at Community Hospital.

My wife (who is a doctor) works at Community Hospital.

Without commas, relative clauses specify one member of a group:

My brother who is a scientist works at the university.

My brother who is a mechanic works at Bob's Garage.

Specifies "which brother" (one of many)

NOUN CLAUSE

Published : 04.35 Author : Unknown

Noun clause used as an object
He said something.
S V O
He said that he was sick.
Noun clause used as a subject
Something is your business.
S V
Whatever you do is your business.
Someone is still in the cafeteria.
S V
Whoever ate my lunch is still in the cafeteria.

What did he say?

What is your business?
Who is in the cafeteria?

The subordinator may take the "subject" or "object" position in a noun clause.

Note the usage of the following:

Henry loves Mary. (S V O)

Mary loves Jim. (S V O)

The person who(m) Lee loves is a secret.

The person who loves Tim is a secret.

Who(m) Henry loves is a secret.

Who loves Tim is a secret.

Mary is the "object" of the sentence.

Mary is the "subject" of the sentence.

Relative clause (subordinator in obj. position)

Relative clause (subordinator in subj. position)

Noun clause (subordinator in obj. position)

Noun clause (subordinator in subj. position)

Subordinators which are used in noun clauses:

CAN YOU USE THE WORD

that

what

who

whoever

whatever

whether

which

where

when

how

why

how much

how many

how long

how far

how often

whose

Remember to preserve word order in noun clauses:

I don't know who he is.

Whoever she is is not important.

Whatever is in the box is a mystery.

Can you tell me what he is doing?

She doesn't undestand why he is leaving.

I wonder how much that costs.

Do you know how long it will take?

Look at the following sentences.

• He expected to get a prize.
• He expected that he would get a prize.
In the first sentence the group of words ‘to get a prize’ does not have a subject and a predicate.
This group of word does the work of a noun.
Whereas in the second sentence, the group of words ‘that he would get a prize’ has both a subject and a predicate.
Here this group of words does the work of a noun. This is a clause.
This clause is the object of the verb EXPECT and so does the work of a noun.
Since this group of words does the works of both a noun and a clause, it is calledNOUN-CLAUSE.
Definition:
A Noun-Clause is a group of words which contains a Subject and a Predicate of its own and does the work of a noun.
Examples:
• I often wonder how you are getting on with him.
• He feared that he would fail.
• They replied that they would come to this town.
• Do you know who stole the watch?
• I thought that it would be fine day.
• No one knows who he is.
• I did not know what he would do next.
• How the budget got in is a mystery.
• Pay careful attention to what I am going to say.
• I do not understand how all it happened.

The Noun-Clauses can be replaced with suitable Nouns or with suitable Noun-Phrases.

• No one knows when he will come. (Noun-Clauses)
• No one knows the time of his coming. (Noun-Phrases)

• I heard that he had succeeded. (Noun-Clauses)
• I heard of his success. (Noun-Phrases)

• We will never know why he failed. (Noun-Clauses)
• We will never know the reason for his failure. (Noun-Phrases)

• The law will punish whosoever is guilty. (Noun-Clause)
• The law will punish the guilty. (Noun)

• The police want to know where he is living. (Noun-Clauses)
• The police want to know his residence. (Noun)

Jumat, 20 April 2012

PHRASE 1

Published : 04.44 Author : Unknown

1.NOUN PHRASE
Noun phrases atau frase nomina adalah frase yang terdiri dari nomina atau pronomina (sebagai head) dan modifiers.

Modifiers yang biasanya menyertai nomina adalah:
- determiners (articles, demonstratives, numbers, possessives, quantifiers)
- adjectives, adjective phrases, adjective clauses
- relative clauses

Seperti halnya nomina, frase nomina juga mempunyai fungsi sebagai subjek atau objek dalam suatu kalimat. Perhatikan contoh berikut di bawah ini:
- My coach is happy.- I like the cars over there.
- The woman who lives there is my aunt.
- Frankenstein is the name of the scientist not the monster.
- I consider Meong my favorite cat.
- Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.
- To read quickly and accurately is John’s goal.
- Two of my guests have arrived.
- Mr. Jones spoke to Dr. James.
- My friend works with her father.

Frase nomina selalu memiliki nomina sebagai head. Dan umumnya determiners danadjective phrases menempati posisi sebagai pre-modifiers atau pre-head. Contoh:
- the children- happy children
- the happy children

Setelah head, diletakkan post-modifiers yang panjangnya tidak dibatasi, contoh: the dogthat chased the cat that killed the mouse that ate the cheese that was made from the milk that came from the cow that...

Dalam kenyataannya, pemakaian post-modifiers sepanjang contoh di atas jarang digunakan, bahkan tidak pernah.

Head dari frase nomina tidak harus selalu nomina, bisa juga berupa pronomina (pronouns).
Contoh:
- I like coffee.
- The waitress gave me the wrong dessert.
- This is my car.

Jika yang berlaku sebagai head berupa pronomina, maka frase nomina itu umumnya memiliki head (berupa pronomina) itu saja. Hal ini karena pronomina tidak memerlukandeterminers atau adjectives sehingga pre-modifiers tidak diperlukan. Tetapi, beberapa pronomina, memungkinkan untuk ditambahkan post-modifiers.
[Those who arrive late] cannot be admitted until the interval.

Begitu juga numbers, dapat menempati posisi sebagai head dari frase nomina.
[Two of my guests] have arrived.[The first to arrive] was John.

Kamis, 12 April 2012

PARELLEL STRUCTURE

Published : 22.26 Author : Unknown

Usage - Parallel Structure

Sentence elements that are alike in function should also be alike in construction. These elements should be in the same grammatical form so that they are parallel.
Using parallel structure in your writing will help with
1) economy 2) clarity 3) equality 4) delight.

Here are five parallelism rules.
1. Use parallel structure with elements joined by coordinating conjuctions

2. Use parallel structure with elements in lists or in a series.

3. Use parallel structure with elements being compared. (X is more than / better than Y)

4. Use parallel structure with elements joined by a lingking verb or a verb of being.

5. Use parallel structure with elements joined by a Correlative conjuction

Rabu, 11 April 2012

PASSIVE VOICE

Published : 09.51 Author : Unknown

scound edition

Passive and Active Voices

Verbs are also said to be either active (The executive committee approved the new policy) or passive (The new policy was approved by the executive committee) in voice. In the active voice, the subject and verb relationship is straightforward: the subject is a be-er or a do-er and the verb moves the sentence along. In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is neither a do-er or a be-er, but is acted upon by some other agent or by something unnamed (The new policy was approved). Computerized grammar checkers can pick out a passive voice construction from miles away and ask you to revise it to a more active construction. There is nothing inherently wrong with the passive voice, but if you can say the same thing in the active mode, do so (see exceptions below). Your text will have more pizzazz as a result, since passive verb constructions tend to lie about in their pajamas and avoid actual work.

We find an overabundance of the passive voice in sentences created by self-protective business interests, magniloquent educators, and bombastic military writers (who must get weary of this accusation), who devil

use the passive voice to avoid responsibility for actions taken. Thus "Cigarette ads were designed to appeal especially to children" places the burden on the ads — as opposed to "We designed the cigarette ads to appeal especially to children," in which "we" accepts responsibility. At a White House press briefing we might hear that "The President was advised that certain members of Congress were being audited" rather than "The Head of the Internal Revenue service advised the President that her agency was auditing certain members of Congress" because the passive construction avoids responsibility for advising and for auditing. One further caution about the passive voice: we should not mix active and passive constructions in the same sentence: "The executive committee approved the new policy, and the calendar for next year's meetings was revised" should be recast as "The executive committee approved the new policy and revised the calendar for next year's meeting."

Take the quiz (below) as an exercise in recognizing and changing passive verbs.

The passive voice does exist for a reason, however, and its presence is not always to be despised. The passive is particularly useful (even recommended) in two situations:

When it is more important to draw our attention to the person or thing acted upon: The unidentified victim was apparently struck during the early morning hours.
When the actor in the situation is not important: The aurora borealis can be observed in the early morning hours.

The passive voice is especially helpful (and even regarded as mandatory) in scientific or technical writing or lab reports, where the actor is not really important but the process or principle being described is of ultimate importance. Instead of writing "I poured 20 cc of acid into the beaker," we would write "Twenty cc of acid is/was poured into the beaker." The passive voice is also useful when describing, say, a mechanical process in which the details of process are much more important than anyone's taking responsibility for the action: "The first coat of primer paint is applied immediately after the acid rinse."

We use the passive voice to good effect in a paragraph in which we wish to shift emphasis from what was the object in a first sentence to what becomes the subject in subsequent sentences.

The executive committee approved an entirely new policy for dealing with academic suspension and withdrawal. The policy had been written by a subcommittee on student behavior. If students withdraw from course work before suspension can take effect, the policy states, a mark of "IW" . . . .

The paragraph is clearly about this new policy so it is appropriate that policy move from being the object in the first sentence to being the subject of the second sentence. The passive voice allows for this transition.†

Passive Verb Formation

The passive forms of a verb are created by combining a form of the "to be verb" with the past participle of the main verb. Other helping verbs are also sometimes present: "The measure could have been killed in committee." The passive can be used, also, in various tenses. Let's take a look at the passive forms of "design."

Tense	Subject	Auxiliary		Past Participle
Tense	Subject	Singular	Plural	Past Participle
Present	The car/cars	is	are	designed.
Present perfect	The car/cars	has been	have been	designed.
Past	The car/cars	was	were	designed.
Past perfect	The car/cars	had been	had been	designed.
Future	The car/cars	will be	will be	designed.
Future perfect	The car/cars	will have been	will have been	designed.
Present progressive	The car/cars	is being	are being	designed.
Past progressive	The car/cars	was being	were being	designed.

A sentence cast in the passive voice will not always include an agent of the action. For instance if a gorilla crushes a tin can, we could say "The tin can was crushed by the gorilla." But a perfectly good sentence would leave out the gorilla: "The tin can was crushed." Also, when an active sentence with an indirect object is recast in the passive, the indirect object can take on the role of subject in the passive sentence:

Active	Professor Villa gave Jorge an A.
Passive	An A was given to Jorge by Professor Villa.
Passive	Jorge was given an A.

Only transitive verbs (those that take objects) can be transformed into passive constructions. Furthermore, active sentences containing certain verbs cannot be transformed into passive structures. To have is the most important of these verbs. We can say "He has a new car," but we cannot say "A new car is had by him." We can say "Josefina lacked finesse," but we cannot say "Finesse was lacked." Here is a brief list of such verbs*:

resemble	look like	equal	agree with
mean	contain	hold	comprise
lack	suit	fit	become

Verbals in Passive Structures

verbal or verb forms can also take on features of the passive voice. An infinitive phrase in the passive voice, for instance, can perform various functions within a sentence (just like the active forms of the infinitive).

Subject: To be elected by my peers is a great honor.
Object: That child really likes to be read to by her mother.
Modifier: Grasso was the first woman to be elected governor in her own right.

The same is true of passive gerunds.

Subject: Being elected by my peers was a great thrill.
Object: I really don't like being lectured to by my boss.
Object of preposition: I am so tired of being lectured to by my boss.

With passive participles, part of the passive construction is often omitted, the result being a simple modifying participle phrese

[~~Having been~~] designed for off-road performance, the Pathseeker does not always behave well on paved highways.

Passive forms are made up of an appropriate form of the verb ‘to be’ followed by the past participle (pp) form of the verb:

Verb form	Construction	Example
Present simple	am/is/are + pp	How is this wordpronounced?
Present continuous	am/are/is being + pp	The house is being redecorated.
Present perfect simple	has/have been + pp	He's just been sacked!
Past simple	was/were + pp	All his credit cards were stolen last week.
Past continuous	was/were being + pp	He was being treatedfor depression when he won the lottery.
Past perfect simple	had been + pp	The vegetables had been cooked for far too long, but we had to eat them.
Future simple	will be + pp	The house contents will be auctioned a week on Saturday.
Future perfect simple	will have been + pp	There’s no point in hurrying. It will all have been eaten by now.
Infinitive	(to) be + pp	Exams have to be takenalmost every year you are at school. Do you know who is going to be invited?